Effects of fipronil on dogs over Triatoma infestans, the main vector of Trypanosoma cruzi, causative agent of Chagas disease.

Chagas disease is the most important endemic disease in Latin America, mainly transmitted by Triatoma infestans in the Southern Cone countries of South America. Dogs are one of the main domestic reservoirs of Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease. The presence of dogs in rural households of endemic areas significantly increases the likelihood of the vectorial transmission of the parasite. We studied the mortality and blood intake of T. infestans exposed to dogs treated with different doses and formulations of fipronil. Two doses, two formulations, and different distances to the application point of fipronil were compared. Third instar nymphs of T. infestans were fed at different time intervals after the insecticide application up to 45 days post-application. No significant difference was found between the blood intake of nymphs fed on control and treated dogs with different doses and formulations (p > 0.05). The spray formulation showed lower effect and persistence than the spot-on formulation. The mortality rate caused by the spot-on formulation in the 26.8-mg active ingredient (a.i.)/kg dose was higher (48%) than with the 13.4-mg a.i./kg dose (25%), 24 h after the insecticide application. The effect was highly heterogeneous among replicates of the same treatment. The mortality rate of nymphs fed over the point of the insecticide application was higher than the mortality of nymphs fed over places 12 cm apart from the fipronil application point, suggesting that the distribution of fipronil over the dog body is lower than the needed one to obtain a persistent triatomicide effect.

The infra-red (IR) landscape of Triatoma infestans. An hypothesis about the role of IR radiation as a cue for Triatominae dispersal.

This paper presents the infrared (IR) emission spectrum of hosts and habitats of Triatoma infestans in the chaco region of NW Argentina, representing the first attempt to correlate the natural infrared stimulus with the known behaviour of these blood-sucking insect, vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi--causative agent of Chagas disease. The study was carried out in two rural villages of La Rioja Province (Argentina). A FLYR i40 camera was used to obtain IR pictures which were analyzed to determine the thermal range for humans, domestic animals, building materials, and general background emissions. From sunset to the first hours of night, the thermal contrast between hosts and their landscape rises, increasing the likelihood that hosts could be differentiated by the vector. However, some building materials, can retain high temperatures during the night, which might add attractiveness to the presence of hosts. The results suggest that the most attractive habitats for dispersing bugs would be those at short distance, with high CO2 emission and strong IR radiation indicative of host presence. Goats corrals may be the most attractive habitat to disperse, within the domestic habitat. Dispersal would be favoured in periods of low atmospheric water saturation when IR perception is highest. In the IR band, the potential host and habitat discrimination available for the insects fits well with their known sensory capacities and observed dispersive behavior. Research in this area could be of considerable interest in relation to vector surveillance, epidemiology of Chagas disease transmission, and to develop new methods to minimise triatomine colonisation of new habitats.

Phenotypic variability and population structure of peridomestic Triatoma infestans in rural areas of the arid Chaco (Western Argentina): spatial influence of macro- and microhabitats.

Triatoma infestans, one of the main vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi, is strongly associated with rural human ecotopes. Infested peridomestic places could act as a source of house infestation as a result of the movement of vectors among habitats. The quantitative study of phenotypic traits and nutritional variables could be informative about the population structure and the relative mobility of vectors. This is the first approach toward analyzing the phenetic characteristics of T. infestans and the relationship with their potential role to invade and colonize other habitats in the arid Chaco region. This article compares the phenotypic structure of T. infestans populations living in chicken coops and goat corrals, analyzing the geometric morphometry of wings and heads, antennal phenotypes, and the nutritional status of 257 adults and nymphs. The study area remained untreated with insecticides during the 15 years before the present study. The insects collected in peridomestic structures located in two zones 80 km apart exhibited significant differences in their morphotypes, suggesting an environmental effect and/or the absence of individual exchange between zones. The population structure was clear in T. infestans from goat corrals and chicken coops in one zone and less pronounced in the other. These results suggest the existence of a different rate of individual exchange among ecotopes within each zone. Morphometric variables of heads and wings were significantly correlated in insects collected in goat corrals but not in chicken coops, suggesting a habitat effect and supporting the hypothesis of different canalization forces that affect the two organs. The nutritional status of adults indicated a low dispersal probability with zonal differences. This article provides the first combined morphometric analysis of the head of adults and fifth instar nymphs in triatomines and the first combined analysis of head and wing in T. infestans.

Variability of the susceptibility to deltamethrin in Triatoma infestans: the female factor.

We analyzed the variability of susceptibility to deltamethrin in putatively susceptible Triatoma infestans Klug (Hemiptera: Reduviidae), and evaluated the sample size implications on the hypotheses used in the current World Health Organization protocol for the measure of insecticide resistance in Triatominae. Following the protocol, using topical application of deltamethrin to unfed first instar nymphs of T. infestans, we found that susceptibility showed significant differences between offspring from different females, a significant association with female age, and significant interaction female x female age. Considering individual female data, three patterns of nymphal mortality were identified: one showed a strong positive relation between nymphal mortality and their mother's age, another showed high mortality with low variability and the third showed intermediate mortality with high variability along female age. The analysis suggests revision of the World Health Organization protocol for resistance detection in Triatominae, not only to take into consideration the sources of variation in susceptibility, but also the effects of sample size in relation to the significance and power probabilities of the test.

Phenotypic variability of Rhodnius ecuadoriensis populations at the Ecuadorian central and southern Andean region.

Rhodnius ecuadoriensis is an important vector of Chagas disease in Ecuador. Whereas only sylvatic and peridomestic populations are common in Manabi province, this species occupies domestic, peridomestic, and sylvatic habitats in Loja province where high reinfestation of houses was observed. To explore the existence of phenetic changes linked to the domiciliation of the species, this study set out to analyze the wing and antennal phenotypes of R. ecuadoriensis in these two provinces where the vector presents different affinity for domestic habitats. The antennal phenotype and the wing size and shape distinguish the two geographical populations of R. ecuadoriensis. In Manabí, sylvatic and peridomestic specimens were very similar. In Loja, sylvatic and nonsylvatic (domestic and peridomestic) populations showed distinctive characteristics. Remarkable sexual dimorphism of wing and antenna, exclusive of domestic specimens, and high metric disparity in the wing shape of the domestic females point out the existence of a particular situation in this habitat. The results of this phenotypic analysis and previous evidence of behavioral differences support the hypothesis of disruptive selection acting upon R. ecuadoriensis populations.

The effects of cypermethrin pour-on and piperonyl butoxide on Triatoma infestans under laboratory conditions.

The effect of exposing Triatoma infestans to chickens treated with cypermethrin pour-on combined with piperonyl butoxide (PBO) was studied. Four groups of treated chickens and one control group were used. Each treatment received 1 or 2 ml of the cypermethrin formulation with and without PBO. Independent groups of nymphs were fed 1, 7, 15, 30, and 45 d after the treatment application. Blood intake was estimated after each feeding occasion. Up to 15 d after the pour-on application, high mortality was observed in all nymphs fed on treated chickens (> 93% +/- 12), and lower than the nymphs of the control group (< 33% +/- 15). After 30 d of the pour-on application, there was significantly different mortality between the treatment with 1 ml (80% +/- 9) and 2 ml (> 96% +/- 5); no difference was observed between groups with or without PBO addition. After 45 d of the pour-on application, the treatments did not show significant differences (77% +/- 7), although all treatments showed higher mortality than the control group (10% +/- 9). Up to 45 d after the pour-on application, blood intake by nymphs exposed to treated chickens (0.85 +/- 0.96 mg/nymph) was lower than blood intake by nymphs exposed to control chickens (6.7 +/- 5 mg/nymph). This study shows that cypermethrin pour-on produces high mortality and reduces the blood intake of third-instar nymphs of T. infestans up to 45 d after the insecticide application to chickens. PBO did not produce a detectable effect.

Seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection and vector control activities in rural communities of the southern Gran Chaco (Argentina).

We compared age-related seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection with history of vector control interventions and social and ecological changes in three historically endemic departments of Cordoba province, Argentina, covering an area of 42,600 km(2) of the Gran Chaco region. Using a cross sectional design, blood samples of 5240 people between 6 months and 40 years of age, living in 192 rural communities were analyzed to detect T. cruzi infection using ELISA tests, and confirmed with indirect immunofluorescent antibody test and indirect haemoagglutination. Overall seroprevalence was 5.4%, 7.9% and 7.5% in the north, northwest and west studied areas (average for all areas 6.95%). Seroprevalence for T cruzi increased with population age, especially in age classes older than 15 years of age. Communities of the north and west areas showed 0.59% seroprevalence for T. cruzi in children below 15 years of age, whereas children of the same age in the northwest region showed a seroprevalence of 3.08%. Comparative analyses indicate that vector control activities and land use changes during the last decades are the most likely causes of the overall reduction of T. cruzi prevalence. Results suggest that the vectorial transmission of T. cruzi has been strongly reduced and probably interrupted in the north and west areas, but it is still active in the northwestern rural settlements of Córdoba province.

Experimental evaluation of insecticidal paints against Triatoma infestans (Hemiptera: Reduviidae), under natural climatic conditions.

BACKGROUND: Triatoma infestans is the main vector of Chagas disease in the Gran Chaco region of South America. The traditional spraying technique used for the application of pyrethroid insecticides has shown low efficiency in the elimination of the vector species populations occupying peridomestic structures of rural houses in the endemic area of Argentina. As part of studies looking for better alternatives, we evaluated the residual effect of insecticidal paints on the mortality of fourth instar nymphs of T. infestans. RESULTS: The study was based on an experimental design that included two groups treated with an organophosphate (Inesfly 5A IGR) and a pyrethroid (Inesfly 5A IGR NG) formulations of the paint, that were applied on wood, cement blocks and adobe bricks under natural climatic conditions. A third group was an untreated control. Both paint formulations showed very long residual activity, producing mortality of 84% and 98% (pyrethroid and organophosphate formulations, respectively) after 12 months of the paint application. After eight months, nymphs exposed during 6 hours to the painted surfaces with the pyrethroid and organophosphate formulations showed 81.33% and 100% mortality, respectively. CONCLUSION: The organophosphate- and pyrethroid-based insecticidal paints showed a very long residual activity on the mortality of fourth instar nymphs of T infestans, compared with the traditional spraying technique used for the application of pyrethroid insecticides in peridomestic structures of rural houses in the endemic region for Chagas disease in the Gran Chaco of Argentina. The application of the paints by trained personnel of the vector control programmes could be considered as an alternative control tool in areas where the traditional methods have failed or showed low efficacy.

Response of Triatoma infestans to pour-on cypermethrin applied to chickens under laboratory conditions.

This article reports the effects of a pour-on formulation of cypermethrin (6% active ingredient) applied to chickens exposed to Triatoma infestans, the main vector of Chagas disease in rural houses of the Gran Chaco Region of South America. This study was designed as a completely random experiment with three experimental groups and five replicates. Third instar nymphs were fed on chickens treated with 0, 1 and 2 cc of the formulation. Nymphs were allowed to feed on the chickens at different time intervals after the insecticide application. Third-instar nymphs fed on treated chickens showed a higher mortality, took less blood during feeding and had a lower moulting rate. The mortality rate was highest seven days after the insecticide solution application and blood intake was affected until 30 days after the application of the solution.

Response of Triatoma infestans to pour-on cypermethrin applied to chickens under laboratory conditions

This article reports the effects of a pour-on formulation of cypermethrin (6 percent active ingredient) applied to chickens exposed to Triatoma infestans, the main vector of Chagas disease in rural houses of the Gran Chaco Region of South America. This study was designed as a completely random experiment with three experimental groups and five replicates. Third instar nymphs were fed on chickens treated with 0, 1 and 2 cc of the formulation. Nymphs were allowed to feed on the chickens at different time intervals after the insecticide application. Third-instar nymphs fed on treated chickens showed a higher mortality, took less blood during feeding and had a lower moulting rate. The mortality rate was highest seven days after the insecticide solution application and blood intake was affected until 30 days after the application of the solution.

Spatial stratification of house infestation by Triatoma infestans in La Rioja, Argentina.

Vectorial transmission of Chagas disease has been decreasing over the past few decades because of effective vector control programs in the southern cone of South America. However, the disease is still actively transmitted within the Gran Chaco region. In this area, vector populations are abundant and highly prevalent in poor rural houses. This study analyses the spatial pattern of rural house infestation by Triatoma infestans in a 56,000 km(2) area in the province of La Rioja, Argentina, before the re-initiation of systematic activity on vector control intervention. Data on 5,045 rural houses show that infestation has high spatial heterogeneity, with highly infested localities concentrated in a few areas. House infestation has a negative significant relationship with locality size. Rural houses in the region are highly dispersed and this feature has been and will remain a challenge for any vigilance system to be installed in the region.

Inferences about antennal phenotype: the "Triatoma maculata complex" (Hemiptera: Triatominae) is valid?

The "Triatoma maculata complex" is presently formed by two epidemiologically important species of Triatominae, Triatoma maculata and Triatoma pseudomaculata, which share morphologic and chromatic characteristics. In order to clarify the systematic status and infer the evolutionary relationships of these vectors of Chagas disease, we performed a comparative analysis of their antennal phenotype, taking also into account Triatoma wygodzinskyi, a possible sister species. The comparison was based on sensilla arrays on the three distal segments of the antenna. Our results show a close similarity between T. pseudomaculata and T. wygodzinskyi antennal phenotypes, and significant differences with T. maculata. The inter-population study reinforces the idea that T. pseudomaculata (arboricolous species) and T. wygodzinskyi (rupicolous species) would originate from a common ancestor.

Entomological aspects of Chagas' disease transmission in the domestic habitat, Argentina.

OBJECTIVE: To study the risk of Trypanosoma cruzi domestic transmission using an entomological index and to explore its relationship with household's characteristics and cultural aspects. METHODS: There were studied 158 households in an endemic area in Argentina. Each household was classified according to an entomological risk indicator (number of risky bites/human). A questionnaire was administered to evaluate risk factors among householders. RESULTS: Infested households showed a wide range of risk values (0 to 5 risky bites/human) with skewed distribution, a high frequency of lower values and few very high risk households. Of all collected Triatoma infestans, 44% had had human blood meals whereas 27% had had dogs or chickens blood meals. Having dogs and birds sharing room with humans increased the risk values. Tidy clean households had contributed significantly to lower risk values as a result of low vector density. The infested households showed a 24.3% correlation between time after insecticide application and the number of vectors. But there was no correlation between the time after insecticide application and T. infestans' infectivity. The statistical analysis showed a high correlation between current values of the entomological risk indicator and Trypanosoma cruzi seroprevalence in children. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of T. cruzi domestic transmission assessed using an entomological index show a correlation with children seroprevalence for Chagas' disease and householders' habits.

The sex ratio distortion in the human head louse is conserved over time.

BACKGROUND: At the turn of the 19th century the first observations of a female-biased sex ratio in broods and populations of the head louse, Pediculus humanus capitis, had been reported. A study by Buxton in 1940 on the sex ratio of lice on prisoners in Ceylon is still today the subject of reanalyses. This sex ratio distortion had been detected in ten different countries. In the last sixty years no new data have been collected, especially on scalp infestations under economically and socially more developed conditions. RESULTS: Here we report a female bias of head lice in a survey of 480 school children in Argentina. This bias is independent of the intensity of the pediculosis, which makes local mate competition highly unlikely as the source of the aberrant sex ratio; however, other possible adaptive mechanisms cannot be discounted. These lice as well as lice from pupils in Britain were carrying several strains of the endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia pipientis, one of the most wide spread intracellular sex ratio distorters. Similar Wolbachia strains are also present in the pig louse, Haematopinus suis, suggesting that this endosymbiont might have a marked influence on the biology of the whole order. The presence of a related obligate nutritional bacterium in lice prevents the investigation of a causal link between sex ratio and endosymbionts. CONCLUSIONS: Regardless of its origin, this sex ratio distortion in head lice that has been reported world wide, is stable over time and is a remarkable deviation from the stability of frequency-dependent selection of Fisher's sex ratio. A female bias first reported in 1898 is still present over a hundred years and a thousand generations later.

Systematics of Triatoma sordida, T. guasayana and T. patagonica (Hemiptera, Reduviidae)

Because of the relative epidemiological significance of Triatoma sordida, T. guasayana and T. patagonica, and the need to resolve doubts about their taxonomic validity, we report here a detailed taxonomic comparison of the three species using multivariate analysis of morphometric measures combined with comparisons of their genitalia and antennal structures. From the 17 metric variables studied, the length of the second segment of the rostrum and the anteocular length provided a discrimination function able to separate without error T. sordida from T. guasayana and T. patagonica. The multivariate discriminant functions classified T. guasayana and T. patagonica with an error of 2.44 per cent . Comparison of the male genitalia of T. guasayana and T. sordida showed that there are minor differences in the articulatory apparatus, the median process of the pygophore, the phallosome support and the vesica, with bigger differences in the endosomal process and the phallosome. However, the already described male genitalia of T. patagonica is very similar to that of T. sordida. Analysis of antennal structure by scanning electron microscope showed that sensilla distribution around the pedicel is slightly different in the three species and sensilla density is highest in T. sordida and lowest in T. patagonica. The study showed that the three species form a closely related group. The results confirm the earlier classification of sordida and guasayana as separate species, but they raise some doubts about the taxonomic status of T. patagonica